Hydrogen Peroxide

Uses
Industrial applications
About 50% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide in 1994 was used for pulp- and paper-bleaching. Other bleaching applications are becoming more important as hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally benign alternative to chlorine-based bleaches. It is highly corrosive to metal.

Other major industrial applications for hydrogen peroxide include the manufacture of sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate, used as mild bleaches in laundry detergents. It is used in the production of certain organic peroxides such as dibenzoyl peroxide, used in polymerisations and other chemical processes.
Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the production of epoxides such as propylene oxide. Reaction with carboxylic acids produces a corresponding peroxy acid. Peracetic acid and meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (commonly abbreviated mCPBA) are prepared from acetic acid and meta-chlorobenzoic acid, respectively.
The latter is commonly reacted with alkenes to give the corresponding epoxide. In the PCB manufacturing process, hydrogen peroxide mixed with sulfuric acid was used as the microetch chemical for copper surface roughening preparation.

A combination of a powdered precious metal-based catalyst, hydrogen peroxide, methanol and water can produce superheated steam in one to two seconds, releasing only CO2 and high temperature steam for a variety of purposes.

Domestic uses
-Diluted H2O2 (around 15%) is used to bleach human hair, hence the phrase "peroxide blonde". It is absorbed by skin upon contact and creates a local skin capillary embolism which appears as a temporary whitening of the skin. It is used to whiten bones that are to be put on display.
The strength of a solution may be described as a percentage or volume, where 1% hydrogen peroxide releases 3.3 volumes of oxygen during decomposition.Thus, a 3% solution is equivalent to 10 volume and a 6% solution to 20 volume, etc.
-3% H2O2 is used medically for cleaning wounds, removing dead tissue, and as an oral debriding agent. Peroxide stops slow (small vessel) wound bleeding/oozing, as well. Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion.
-3% H2O2 is effective at treating fresh (red) blood-stains in clothing and on other items. It must be applied to clothing before blood stains can be accidentally "set" with heated water. Cold water and soap are then used to remove the peroxide treated blood.
-The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has classified hydrogen peroxide as a Low Regulatory Priority (LRP) drug for use in controlling fungus on fish and fish eggs. (See ectoparasite.)
-Some gardeners and users of hydroponics advocate the use of hydrogen peroxide in watering solutions. They claim that its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat root rot (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen).
-Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. Hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide.
-Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer effective in controlling sulfide and organic related odors in wastewater collection and treatment systems.
It is typically applied to a wastewater system where there is a retention time of 30 minutes to 5 hours before hydrogen sulfide is released. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the hydrogen sulfide and promotes bio-oxidation of organic odors. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to oxygen and water, adding dissolved oxygen to the system thereby negating some Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
-Mixed with baking soda and a small amount of hand soap, hydrogen peroxide is effective at removing skunk odor.
-Hydrogen peroxide is used with phenyl oxalate ester and an appropriate dye in glow sticks as an oxidizing agent. It reacts with the ester to form an unstable CO2 dimer which excites the dye to an excited state; the dye emits a photon (light) when it spontaneously relaxes back to the ground state.

Storage
Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 2.5% are widely available and legal to buy for medical use. Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and are typically accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin. In the presence of a reducing agent, high concentrations of H2O2 will react violently.

Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances.
It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable). Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that filter out light.

Use as propellant
H2O2 can be used either as a monopropellant (not mixed with fuel) or as the oxidizer component of a bipropellant rocket. Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98+% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen.
The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber where a catalyst, usually a silver or platinum screen, triggers decomposition, producing steam at over 600 °C which is expelled through a nozzle, generating thrust. H2O2 monopropellant produces a maximum specific impulse (Isp) of 161 s (1.6 kN•s/kg), which makes it a low-performance monopropellant. Peroxide generates much less thrust than hydrazine, but is not toxic.
The Bell Rocket Belt used hydrogen peroxide monopropellant.

As a bipropellant H2O2 is decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer. Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN•s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel.
Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower Isp than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures.
It can also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World-War-II German rockets (e.g. T-Stoff for the Me-163), and for the low-cost British Black Knight and Black Arrow launchers.

In the 1940s and 1950s the Walter turbine used hydrogen peroxide for use in submarines while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to diesel-electric power systems. Some torpedoes used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant, but this was dangerous and has been discontinued by most navies. Hydrogen peroxide leaks were blamed for the sinkings of HMS Sidon and the Russian submarine Kursk.
It was discovered, for example, by the Japanese Navy in torpedo trials, that the concentration of H2O2 in right-angle bends in HTP pipework can often lead to explosions in submarines and torpedoes. Hydrogen peroxide is still used on Soyuz for driving gas turbines to power turbopumps, however.
SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000. This torpedo, used by the Swedish navy, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel in a bipropellant system.

While rarely used now as a monopropellant for large engines, small hydrogen peroxide attitude control thrusters are still in use on some satellites.
They are easy to throttle, and safer to fuel and handle before launch than hydrazine thrusters. However, hydrazine is more often used in spacecraft because of its higher specific impulse and lower rate of decomposition.

Recently H2O2/propylene has been proposed as an approach to inexpensive Single Stage To Orbit: a fuel tank containing propylene has a bladder floating in it containing H2O2. This combination offers 15% superior Isp to O2/RP4 (a kerosene used as rocket propellant), does not need turbines or cryogenic storage or hardware, and greatly reduces the cost of the booster. The potential of this and other alternative systems is discussed in some detail at Dunn Engineering.

Therapeutic use
Hydrogen peroxide is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as an antimicrobial agent, an oxidizing agent and for other purposes by the US Food and Drug Administration.

Hydrogen peroxide has been used as an antiseptic and anti-bacterial agent for many years due to its oxidizing effect. While its use has decreased in recent years with the popularity of better-smelling and more readily-available over the counter products, it is still used by many hospitals, doctors and dentists in sterilizing, cleaning and treating everything from floors to root canal procedures.

Like many oxidative antiseptics, hydrogen peroxide causes mild damage to tissue in open wounds, but it also is effective at rapidly stopping capillary bleeding (slow blood oozing from small vessels in abrasions), and is sometimes used sparingly for this purpose, as well as cleaning.
Hydrogen peroxide can be used as a toothpaste when mixed with correct quantities of baking soda and salt.
Hydrogen peroxide and benzoyl peroxide are sometimes used to treat acne.
Hydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice.

Alternative uses
Some people have tried using peroxide as a treatment for cancer. The American Cancer Society states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective or useful cancer treatment", and advises cancer patients to "remain in the care of qualified doctors who use proven methods of treatment and approved clinical trials of promising new treatments.
Another controversial alternative medical procedure is inhalation of hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of about 1%. Internal use of hydrogen peroxide has a history of causing fatal blood disorders, and its recent use as a therapeutic treatment has been linked to several deaths.

Paraffin is a common name for a group of alkane hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. In the U.S.A. the fuel known in most of the world as paraffin oil (or just paraffin) is called kerosene.
The solid forms of paraffin are called paraffin wax. Paraffin is also a technical name for an alkane in general, but in most cases it refers specifically to a linear, or normal alkane, while branched, or isoalkane are also called isoparaffins. The name is derived from the Latin parum (= barely) + affinis with the meaning here of "lacking affinity", or "lacking reactivity").

Physical and chemical properties
It is mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid, with a typical melting point between about 47 °C and 65 °C. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, benzene, and certain esters. Paraffin is unaffected by most common chemical reagents, but burns readily.

Pure paraffin is an extremely good electrical insulator, with a electrical resistivity of 1017 ohm meter. This is better than nearly all other materials except some plastics (notably teflon).

Liquid paraffin
Liquid paraffin has a number of names, including nujol, mineral spirits, adepsine oil, alboline, glymol, liquid paraffin, medicinal paraffin, paraffin oil, saxol, or USP mineral oil.
It is often used in infrared spectroscopy, as it has a relatively uncomplicated IR spectrum. When the sample to be tested is made into a mull (a very thick solution), liquid paraffin is added so it can be spread on the disks to be tested. Jet fuel is a type of paraffin oil (or "kerosene" in US English).

Uses
Candlemaking
Coatings for waxed paper or cloth.
Coating for many kinds of hard cheese, like Edam cheese.
A key component in wax used for investment casting.
As anti-caking, moisture repellent, and dustbinding coatings for fertilizers.
Preparing specimens for histology.
Solid propellant for hybrid rocket motors.
Sealing jars, cans, and bottles.
In dermatology, as an emollient (moisturiser).
Surfing, for grip on surfboards as a component of surfwax.
The primary component of glide wax, used on skis and snowboards.
Microwax as a food additive, a glazing agent with E number E905.
The paraffin test is used in forensics to detect granules of gunpowder in the hand of a shooting suspect.
A fire performance fuel.
Blends of paraffin and micro waxes in rubber compounds as anti-ozonant agent, to prevent cracking of the rubber. The antiozonant waxes can today be produced from synthetic waxes, FT wax, and Fischer Tropsch wax.
Food-grade paraffin wax is used in some candies to make them look shiny.
Although edible, it is nondigestible; it passes right through the body without being broken down. Non-food grade paraffin wax can contain oils and other impurities which may be toxic or harmful.

Impure mixtures of mostly paraffin wax are used in wax baths for beauty and therapy purposes.

Paraffin wax is not used much to make original models for casting, as it is relatively brittle at room temperature and usually cannot be cold-carved without excessive chipping and breaking. Soft, pliable waxes such as beeswax are preferred for modeling.